Which Zambian Hoaxes Were Really Hoaxes?
Zambia’s best-known stories of deception do not form a neat parade of master criminals and spectacular forgeries. The more revealing pattern is a mixture of ambiguous performance, colonial-era monster lore, sensational newspaper reporting and modern social-media fabrications. Some cases were deliberate frauds.
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Introduction
The most famous example is Edward Mukuka Nkoloso’s improvised 1960s space programme. It was real enough to have recruits, training exercises and international publicity, yet it may also have been an elaborate joke about the Cold War and Western attitudes towards newly independent Africa. Later episodes are less ambiguous: a newspaper repeated a grotesque claim about Chinese “human meat”; an invented nurse supposedly confessed to swapping thousands of babies; and fake government accounts, recycled photographs and artificial-intelligence videos have targeted Zambian audiences online. Together, these cases show how authority, prejudice, fear and visual evidence can make doubtful claims feel persuasive.
Was Zambia’s space programme a hoax?
Shortly before Zambia became independent in October 1964, schoolteacher and former independence activist Edward Mukuka Nkoloso announced that his self-created National Academy of Science, Space Research and Philosophy intended to beat both the United States and the Soviet Union to the Moon. He recruited would-be “Afronauts”, proposed sending a teenage girl and cats into space, and described a training system that included rolling participants downhill inside an oil drum. Time reported the scheme during Zambia’s independence celebrations, helping turn Nkoloso into an international curiosity.[Time]time.comZambia: Tomorrow the MoonDuring the independence festivities only one noted Zambian failed to share in all the harmony. He is Edward…
It is tempting to call the entire enterprise a straightforward hoax. Nkoloso had no workable rocket, no official national mandate and no realistic engineering programme. His proposed vehicle, D-Kalu 1, was described as a small drum-shaped craft rather than anything capable of escaping Earth’s gravity. Zambia’s government did not adopt his academy as the country’s official space agency, and the funding he sought never arrived.[National Air and Space Museum]airandspace.si.eduNational Air and Space MuseumThe Story Behind the Zambian Space Program28 Feb 2025 — Nkoloso promised the press that the first launch wou…
Yet the “hoax” label obscures as much as it explains. Nkoloso maintained the performance for years and appears to have combined sincere technological ambition with satire, political theatre and self-promotion. Former diplomatic and political figures remembered him in sharply different ways: as an intelligent veteran of anti-colonial politics, an eccentric dreamer, or a comedian who never stepped out of character. President Kenneth Kaunda later described the programme as being more for fun than a serious government project.[The New Yorker]newyorker.comThe New Yorker The Zambian "Afronaut" Who Wanted to Join the Space RaceHis Zambia National Academy of Science, Space Research, and Philosophy began training twelve astronauts, including a 16-year-old girl, th…
Nkoloso’s own public language encouraged uncertainty. His claims were so excessive that they could be read as parody: a poor, newly independent country would supposedly overtake the superpowers, convert an oil drum into a spacecraft and colonise Mars while the United States and Soviet Union spent enormous sums on missiles and prestige projects. One interpretation is that he recognised the appetite of foreign reporters for stories portraying Africa as primitive or absurd and supplied them with an irresistibly exaggerated version. The foreign press could laugh at his training exercises without noticing that the multibillion-dollar space race was itself filled with nationalist spectacle.
The story became still more complicated when later artists reconstructed it. Cristina de Middel’s photographic project Afronauts deliberately mixed fact and fiction, creating staged images that many viewers initially assumed were genuine historical photographs. Her work was not an attempt to forge an archive secretly; it was designed to test why audiences readily believed improbable images of Africa while doubting African modernity itself.[WIRED]wired.comphotos find fictional fun in amateur space programThe training involved unconventional methods such as rolling participants in oil drums and cutting rope-swings mid-arc. Though largely di…
Nkoloso’s programme is therefore best understood as a contested performance rather than a proven confidence trick. There is no clear evidence that he used it to extract large sums from victims. Its real beneficiaries were journalists, photographers and later storytellers who turned the ambiguity into compelling material. Its lasting lesson is that a hoax can exist partly in the eye of the observer: reporters may believe they are exposing foolishness while unknowingly participating in someone else’s satire.
The kongamato: monster, mistake or colonial invention?
Western Zambia is associated with one of Africa’s most frequently repeated cryptid stories: the kongamato, a supposedly reptilian flying creature said to inhabit wetlands near Mwinilunga and neighbouring regions of Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Popular retellings describe it as featherless, red or dark in colour, armed with teeth and capable of attacking boats. It is regularly presented as a surviving pterosaur.[Wikipedia]WikipediaOpen source on wikipedia.org.
The story entered English-language print through Frank Melland’s 1923 book In Witch-bound Africa. Melland, a British colonial official, wrote that Kaonde informants recognised a drawing of a prehistoric flying reptile as resembling a feared creature. Later writers added injured witnesses, terrified reactions to illustrations and purported sightings across central Africa. These accounts have since been copied through cryptozoological books and websites, often without access to independent testimony or physical evidence.
This is not a securely documented deliberate hoax. It is a layered legend assembled through translation, colonial ethnography and repeated retelling. A witness might have described a large bird or bat; an interviewer might have guided the comparison towards a pterosaur; and later authors could then present the resemblance as zoological identification. The method of showing people a picture and asking whether it resembles an unknown animal is especially weak because recognition can be prompted by the image itself.
No verified specimen, photograph, track or biological remains have established the existence of a giant flying reptile in Zambia. Suggested natural explanations include large bats and unusual birds such as storks. An alleged photograph reported in later cryptid literature was itself said to have been exposed as fake, although the history and provenance of that image remain poorly documented.[Wikipedia]WikipediaOpen source on wikipedia.org.
The useful distinction is between folklore and fraud. Local stories about dangerous wetland creatures need not have originated as attempts to deceive. The distortion occurred when outsiders converted culturally situated accounts into apparent scientific evidence for prehistoric survival. The kongamato survives because it combines a dramatic landscape, the authority of published explorers and the appealing possibility that conventional zoology has missed something enormous. Its fame tells us more about the machinery of cryptozoology than it does about Zambian wildlife.
When a gruesome rumour became newspaper news
In 2016, social-media posts claimed that China was processing human bodies, sealing the flesh in tins and exporting it to African markets as corned beef. A Zambian tabloid, Kachepa, repeated the accusation in a report headlined around the idea that China was feeding Africa human meat. The story caused diplomatic anger and travelled internationally before the paper issued an apology, admitting that its information had come from social media, had not been verified and constituted a hoax.[zm.china-embassy.gov.cn]zm.china-embassy.gov.cnChina Feeding Africa with Human Meat". 2016-06-17… hoax and the tabloid therefore extends its unreserved apology to the Chinese people…
The images did not document a Chinese food factory. At least some came from a 2012 publicity stunt created in London to promote the video game Resident Evil 6. Fake human limbs and butchered body parts had been displayed as theatrical “meat”, making the photographs shocking but entirely unrelated to food exports or Zambia.[en.gmw.cn]en.gmw.cncontent 23649324content 23649324
The rumour worked because it joined convincing-looking pictures to existing distrust. China’s commercial presence in Zambia had already produced arguments about labour conditions, mining, migration and political influence. A fabricated story could therefore attach itself to genuine tensions while replacing complicated economic questions with a simple horror narrative. The claim also drew on an older genre of xenophobic legend in which foreigners secretly contaminate food, harvest organs or treat local people as less than human.
No credible evidence showed that anyone had been sold canned human flesh. The immediate failure was journalistic: material taken from social media was published before its origin was established. But the case also illustrates why corrections rarely travel as effectively as accusations. The original images were visceral and instantly understandable; the debunking required readers to follow their history through advertising, recycled posts and international fact-checking.
The nurse who supposedly swapped 5,000 babies
In 2019, articles and social-media posts claimed that a terminally ill Zambian nurse called Elizabeth Bwalya Mwewa had confessed to exchanging approximately 5,000 newborn babies at Lusaka’s University Teaching Hospital between 1983 and 1995. According to the story, she had done it “for fun” and wished to seek forgiveness before dying. The accusation spread widely enough to alarm families who had used the hospital during the alleged period.[AFP Fact Check]factcheck.afp.comno photo does not show zambian nurse who swapped thousands babiesno photo does not show zambian nurse who swapped thousands babies
The account collapsed under basic checking. Zambia’s General Nursing Council reported that it could find no record of a nurse or midwife by that name working at the hospital. The photograph attached to the story did not establish the woman’s identity and had appeared in unrelated online contexts. The number was also inherently implausible: swapping 5,000 babies over 12 years would require almost daily interference without parents, colleagues or hospital records revealing a pattern.[africacheck.org]africacheck.orgno zambian nurse didnt swap 5000 babies birth 12 yearsno zambian nurse didnt swap 5000 babies birth 12 years
This hoax was powerful because it targeted identity rather than abstract politics. A reader born at the hospital during the stated years could not dismiss the story as someone else’s problem. It invited thousands of people to wonder whether their parents, children or siblings were biologically related to them. The supposed deathbed confession also supplied a familiar storytelling device: an apparently guilty person, facing death, finally reveals a secret too terrible to carry any longer.
No verified confession, employment record or credible witness supported the story. Nevertheless, versions have continued to reappear with altered names and recycled pictures. The case demonstrates how falsehoods are renewed rather than merely repeated. Changing a photograph or modifying the nurse’s middle name can make an old fabrication seem like a fresh revelation to people encountering it for the first time.
Photographs that migrate between countries
Many Zambia-related visual hoaxes do not begin in Zambia. Their creators take a genuine photograph from one place and attach a false local caption to it. In one example, images said to show an illegal Coca-Cola factory uncovered in Zambia actually depicted a 2015 raid on a makeshift drinks operation in Pakistan. The photographs showed a real event, but the location and surrounding story had been changed.[AFP Fact Check]factcheck.afp.comno these images show illegal soft drink operation raided authorities pakistanno these images show illegal soft drink operation raided authorities pakistan
A more personal case involved Christopher Haambote, a Zambian farmer whose bloodied photograph circulated during xenophobic violence in South Africa in 2019. Posts falsely identified him as a Kenyan whose children had been killed. AFP traced the man and established that the image showed injuries he had suffered in Zambia in 2017. Haambote said the false recirculation forced him to relive the assault.[AFP Fact Check]factcheck.afp.comOpen source on afp.com.
Such fabrications are harder to detect than crude image manipulation because the picture itself is authentic. Reverse-image searches, original publication dates and contact with the photographer or subject may be needed to expose the false caption. The emotional content encourages rapid sharing before those checks occur.
These cases also show why “no one was physically fooled by an edited picture” is not an adequate measure of harm. A miscaptioned photograph can inflame hostility between nationalities, fabricate victims, damage a person’s reputation or turn private suffering into political propaganda. The deception lies in the relationship between image and caption rather than in the pixels.
Fake institutions, grants and political messages
As public services and commerce moved online, impersonation became one of Zambia’s most practical forms of fraud. In 2020, a fake Facebook account posing as Zambia’s Ministry of Commerce advertised nonexistent financial grants for entrepreneurs affected by the coronavirus pandemic. The genuine ministry denied offering the money. Similar pages appeared elsewhere in Africa, suggesting a reusable scam model rather than a uniquely Zambian operation.[AFP Fact Check]factcheck.afp.comfake posts offering non existing grants target entrepreneurs africafake posts offering non existing grants target entrepreneurs africa
These schemes borrow credibility from official names, government insignia and photographs of ministers. They may eventually demand registration fees, identity documents, mobile-money payments or personal details. Their persuasive strength comes from offering something plausible and urgently needed. During an economic crisis, a small-business grant does not sound miraculous; it sounds like the sort of assistance a ministry might reasonably provide.
Zambian research into mobile-phone social engineering has identified phishing, fraudulent text messages and deceptive calls as growing threats accompanying the expansion of mobile communications and digital payments. The criminal does not normally defeat a computer system through advanced coding. Instead, the victim is persuaded to surrender a password, payment or verification code voluntarily.[arXiv]arxiv.orgOpen source on arxiv.org.
Political impersonation has followed the same path. In 2023, an artificial-intelligence-generated video appeared to show President Hakainde Hichilema announcing that he would not stand in the 2026 election. AFP’s investigation found signs of synthetic production, and the governing party rejected the clip as fabricated.[AFP Fact Check]factcheck.afp.comOpen source on afp.com.
The important change is not that political falsehood suddenly arrived in Zambia. Rumour and propaganda are much older. What has changed is the ability to imitate the visual and vocal signals of authority. A fake statement no longer needs to be presented as hearsay. It can appear to come directly from a president’s mouth.
Election propaganda and the problem with “false news” laws
Zambia’s 2021 general election demonstrated how political misinformation can circulate through partisan networks, fake statements, questionable opinion polls and accounts designed to resemble legitimate news sources. The Carter Center’s final report noted that a 2018 survey found 59 per cent of Zambian internet users had encountered “fake news”, making it the most commonly reported online harm in the survey. The election period also featured low-integrity polling promoted through partisan accounts, although social-media users and the iVerify fact-checking initiative frequently challenged misleading claims.[cartercentee50c07c05.blob.core.windows.net]cartercentee50c07c05.blob.core.windows.netzambia final report 2021zambia final report 2021
Both governing-party and opposition-aligned online actors have been accused of spreading deceptive material. That matters because treating misinformation as the misconduct of only one political camp can itself become propaganda. The incentives are shared: exaggerate support, discredit opponents, simulate official endorsement and make disputed claims appear widely accepted.[Freedom House]freedomhouse.orgfreedom netfreedom net
Yet the history of Zambia’s “false news” law shows why criminalisation is not a simple solution. Section 67 of the Penal Code made it an offence to publish statements likely to cause public fear or disturb the peace. In the 2014 case Chipenzi and Others v The People, the High Court found the provision overbroad and unconstitutional. The prosecution had followed a newspaper allegation that foreign militia had been recruited into Zambia’s police service. The court concluded that the restriction was not a reasonably justified limitation on freedom of expression.[zambialii.org]zambialii.orgPrincipal Registry LusakaPrincipal Registry Lusaka
The ruling did not declare that accuracy was unimportant. It recognised that giving the state broad power to decide which alarming reports are criminally “false” can suppress investigative journalism, political opposition and honest error. A government may call a report fake before the underlying facts have been independently tested.
Zambia’s experience therefore presents two dangers at once. Fabricated media can mislead voters, provoke fear and facilitate fraud. At the same time, vaguely worded anti-falsehood laws can become instruments against legitimate speech. Effective responses depend less on a government ministry of truth than on transparent corrections, independent journalism, traceable evidence, accountable platforms and laws aimed at specific harms such as fraud, impersonation or incitement.
Why these stories endure
Zambia’s famous hoax stories survive for different reasons, but several recurring mechanisms connect them.
They exploit an existing expectation. Nkoloso’s space programme matched foreign stereotypes of African backwardness, while also mocking the extravagance of the superpowers. The human-meat story attached itself to suspicion of Chinese business interests. Election fabrications flourish where political trust is already low.
They borrow authority. Colonial officials, newspapers, nurses, ministries and presidents all carry institutional weight. A doubtful claim becomes more believable when it appears to come from someone who should possess privileged knowledge.
They use vivid evidence. An oil-drum spacecraft, canned flesh, a dying confession or a bloodied photograph is easier to remember than a careful correction. Even when the picture is genuine, its caption may be false.
They leave room for the audience to complete the story. The best rumours do not explain every detail. They encourage readers to supply their own fears about family identity, foreigners, hospitals, political conspiracies or hidden animals.
The most useful way to examine these episodes is therefore not to ask whether Zambians were unusually willing to believe them. Comparable rumours and fabrications circulate worldwide. The better questions are who supplied the claim, what anxieties it activated, which institutions amplified it, and what kind of evidence finally changed the account. In Zambia, as elsewhere, the history of hoaxes is ultimately a history of trust: how it is earned, borrowed, manipulated and sometimes recovered.
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Endnotes
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National Air and Space MuseumThe Story Behind the Zambian Space Program28 Feb 2025 — Nkoloso promised the press that the first launch wou...
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Source: newyorker.com
Title: The New Yorker The Zambian “Afronaut” Who Wanted to Join the Space Race
Link:https://www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/the-zambian-afronaut-who-wanted-to-join-the-space-race
Source snippet
His Zambia National Academy of Science, Space Research, and Philosophy began training twelve astronauts, including a 16-year-old girl, th...
68.
Source: africacheck.org
Title: china supplying africa corned beef made dead people no its
Link:https://africacheck.org/fact-checks/meta-programme-fact-checks/china-supplying-africa-corned-beef-made-dead-people-no-its
69.
Source: africacheck.org
Title: no zambian nurse didnt swap 5000 babies birth 12 years
Link:https://africacheck.org/fact-checks/meta-programme-fact-checks/no-zambian-nurse-didnt-swap-5000-babies-birth-12-years
70.
Source: freedomhouse.org
Title: freedom net
Link:https://freedomhouse.org/country/zambia/freedom-net/2021
71.
Source: cgfoetestsite.mystagingwebsite.com
Title: Global Freedom of Expression Chipenzi v. The People
Link:https://cgfoetestsite.mystagingwebsite.com/cases/chipenzi-v-the-people/
7
2. Source: httpstaabu.home.blog
Link:https://httpstaabu.home.blog/2021/09/07/afronauts/
73.
Source: africacheck.org
Link:https://www.africacheck.org/fact-checks?field_article_type_value=All&field_country_value=KE&field_rated_value=All&page=19&sort_bef_combine=created_DESC
74.
Source: africacheck.org
Title: fact checks
Link:https://africacheck.org/fact-checks?page=1
75.
Source: africacheck.org
Link:https://africacheck.org/search?f%5B0%5D=topic%3A93&f%5B1%5D=topic%3A155&f%5B2%5D=topic%3A486&f%5B3%5D=topic%3A992&f%5B4%5D=topic%3A1110&f%5B5%5D=topic%3A6122&page=62&search_api_fulltext=male&sort_bef_combine=created_DESC
76.
Source: africacheck.org
Link:https://africacheck.org/search?f%5B0%5D=article_type%3AMedia_literacy&f%5B1%5D=article_type%3Ablog&f%5B2%5D=article_type%3Aex_reports&f%5B3%5D=article_type%3Aguides&f%5B4%5D=article_type%3Ameta-programme-fact-checks&f%5B5%5D=article_type%3Areports&f%5B6%5D=article_type%3Aspot_checks&page=51&search_api_fulltext=male&sort_bef_combine=created_DESC
77.
Source: africacheck.org
Title: no white man not arrested feeding hawkers pet python zambia
Link:https://africacheck.org/fact-checks/meta-programme-fact-checks/no-white-man-not-arrested-feeding-hawkers-pet-python-zambia
78.
Source: africacheck.org
Title: no paracetamol pills stamped p 500 do not contain machupo
Link:https://africacheck.org/fact-checks/meta-programme-fact-checks/no-paracetamol-pills-stamped-p-500-do-not-contain-machupo
79.
Source: africacheck.org
Title: kenya no photo highway turkey
Link:https://africacheck.org/fact-checks/meta-programme-fact-checks/kenya-no-photo-highway-turkey
80.
Source: africacheck.org
Link:https://africacheck.org/search?f%5B0%5D=topic%3A97&f%5B1%5D=topic%3A336&f%5B2%5D=topic%3A1110&f%5B3%5D=topic%3A6122&page=40&search_api_fulltext=male&sort_bef_combine=created_DESC
81.
Source: villains.fandom.com
Link:https://villains.fandom.com/wiki/Kongamato
82.
Source: cryptidz.fandom.com
Link:https://cryptidz.fandom.com/wiki/Kongamato
83.
Source: globalfreedomofexpression.columbia.edu
Title: Chipenzi v. The People HPR032014
Link:https://globalfreedomofexpression.columbia.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Chipenzi-v.-The-People-HPR032014.pdf
Additional References
84.
Source: youtube.com
Title: I swapped about 5,000 babies in 12 years I worked in maternity ward at UTH
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9mebMIdwPVY
Source snippet
Zambia space program Edward Mukuka Nkoloso Afronauts: Interview with Edward Nkoloso | Head of Zambia's Unofficial Space Programme | Nov...
85.
Source: washingtonpost.com
Title: china no we are not sending cans of human flesh to africa
Link:https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/05/19/china-no-we-are-not-sending-cans-of-human-flesh-to-africa/
Source snippet
As the hoax-busting website Snopes.com notes, the photographs shared online that purport to show "human...
86.
Source: youtube.com
Title: Zambia’s Laughable Space Program | Tales From the Bottle
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QMIgcm2ygTE
Source snippet
Afronauts: Interview with Edward Nkoloso | Head of Zambia's Unofficial Space Programme | Nov. 1964...
87.
Source: youtube.com
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M9Do3dz9TR0
Source snippet
I swapped about 5,000 babies in 12 years I worked in maternity ward at UTH - Nurse reportedly admits...
88.
Source: youtube.com
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZBY-Hb-TDw
Source snippet
Zambia's forgotten space program 1964...
89.
Source: researchgate.net
Link:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/408469970_Apartheid_Moral_Panics_Christian_Nationalism_Fake_Satanists_Busting_the_Myth_of_Occult_Crime_in_South_Africa
90.
Source: researchgate.net
Link:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7652866_Understanding_Genital-Shrinking_Epidemics_in_West_Africa_Koro_Juju_or_Mass_Psychogenic_Illness
91.
Source: manchesterhive.com
Link:https://www.manchesterhive.com/supplemental/9781526164285/9781526164285.xml/9781526164285_fullhl.pdf?t%3Astate%3Aclient=nyDWohkTeoBMvtJEMW5htM1clAA%3D%3AH4sIAAAAAAAAAH2Tv28TMRTHnZTQVomARq06ITHAhHSZkJCYStOKqEeIlIiB7d3dy8Xgs49nX34sCBY6MLDAxsDA2H+FkYENwQwTElIn7EtpSCv3pLPurI+ev+%2F7vj76yWqTS4yxbU3sQFEaQA7xCAMDOWpDszsBlwZJggg00pjHqINdwVGaHpLm2tivfY4i6RtFkGIny8XNA5x9%2Fb39dvXH8WGVrYSsHqssV9KincSwZvgUxtASINNW3xCX6b2QrQ9dkS5k+Jy9YJWQreW22un%2FNDfsdqzkkKcFQSTQfrujHRSpZGb12k01PNnWhm3okZq0cQiFMPuKMjCGbf5fobV7whLbcIICJyi4r5RAkJ9v0MsvH45%2FVVnlCauNQRQ4zZl2WphbVgy74g4YcCMwhAiF2625ZXWJ2oqVEJBr7Cr5ELh9jbWzhEvucmUJb7iiPeejHKrTko3zTL+IjDvbw1x1zJ4sMiQwXEmPuhLbie1Qdcd6oz3YZomNgQtn3NxNH7tedkA2KB5gzQEdHfk0lYPbS7jNEwcxmOW+QvVSVWFGirTHhuails3kRFHik92ICyKbhjbmZjQfz1IuOjYrKVLz+8dPf14d3rW56PzLBbFrC65bZBHS66P31+vvvr2pMmZjY5%2FzHe6Q4bHAOe8TVXqZDEMun%2FmE1+0V4BIMDlTsm3IG0wcIib1pi%2FbccutMVEH2SKVk08DH2OY6FzC7yPy5sz5lZZuPpOASe0XUthIvToT2JWKrDDwSR%2F1YCZvpMxfuL9fnzhHFBAAA
92.
Source: smithsonianmag.com
Link:https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/inside-biggest-art-fraud-history-180983692/
93.
Source: international-partnerships.ec.europa.eu
Link:https://international-partnerships.ec.europa.eu/news-and-events/stories/fighting-disinformation-support-elections-zambia_en
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