Within American Hoaxes
Why Fake Relics Fooled Experts and Museums
Giants, skulls, runestones and brass plates gained authority by confirming stories that scholars, believers and local communities wanted to accept.
On this page
- The Cardiff Giant and profitable archaeological spectacle
- The Calaveras Skull and Kensington Runestone disputes
- Drake's Plate and the danger of institutional endorsement
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Introduction
Some of the most influential American hoaxes were not newspaper stories or travelling curiosities. They were physical objects: stones, skulls, brass plates and giant bodies that appeared to offer proof of disputed versions of history. A forged relic could do something a rumour could not. It could be displayed in a museum, examined by experts and photographed as evidence. Once accepted, it could reshape arguments about who reached North America first, how old human settlement was, or whether biblical traditions had left traces in the American landscape.
What makes these cases remarkable is not simply that people were fooled. Many of the relics succeeded because they appeared to answer questions that scholars, collectors, religious believers and local communities already wanted answered. The most revealing episodes show how authority can be borrowed from archaeology, museums and scientific testing—and how difficult it can be to reverse a powerful story once a physical object seems to support it.[Wikipedia]WikipediaDrake's Plate of BrassDrake's Plate of Brass
Why fake relics were so persuasive
Forged artefacts thrive when genuine evidence is scarce and public interest is high. In nineteenth- and early twentieth-century America, debates over ancient migrations, Indigenous history, biblical interpretation and European exploration created strong demand for dramatic discoveries. A relic that appeared to settle a longstanding argument could attract attention far beyond academic circles.
These objects also benefited from a simple psychological advantage. People tend to trust something they can see. A carved stone or weathered skull appears more convincing than a verbal claim. Once newspapers, museums or respected scholars endorsed an object, scepticism became harder. Later corrections often struggled to achieve the same visibility as the original announcement. The pattern appears repeatedly in the cases below: an exciting discovery receives immediate publicity, while the slow process of verification arrives years or decades later.[Smithsonian Magazine]smithsonianmag.comSmithsonian Magazine The Cardiff Giant Was Just a Big HoaxSmithsonian MagazineThe Cardiff Giant Was Just a Big HoaxOctober 16, 2017 — 16 Oct 2017 — The story, which began on this day in 1869, was…
The Cardiff Giant and the business of belief
The Cardiff Giant remains one of the most famous forged artefacts in American history. In 1869 workers digging a well near Cardiff, New York, uncovered what appeared to be the petrified body of a giant more than three metres long. Crowds flocked to see it, paying admission fees to inspect the supposedly ancient figure.[Smithsonian Magazine]smithsonianmag.comSmithsonian Magazine The Cardiff Giant Was Just a Big HoaxSmithsonian MagazineThe Cardiff Giant Was Just a Big HoaxOctober 16, 2017 — 16 Oct 2017 — The story, which began on this day in 1869, was…
The giant had actually been commissioned by tobacco merchant George Hull, who arranged for a huge gypsum figure to be carved, artificially aged and buried before its staged discovery. The hoax exploited contemporary fascination with biblical references to giants and with spectacular archaeological finds. Rather than presenting a completely impossible story, it offered a physical object that seemed just plausible enough to provoke debate.[Wikipedia]WikipediaCardiff GiantCardiff Giant
What made the Cardiff Giant important was not merely the deception itself but the way it became a public event. Newspapers argued over its authenticity. Showman P. T. Barnum created his own competing giant when he could not obtain the original. The giant became a commercial spectacle, demonstrating that archaeological authority and entertainment could become tightly intertwined. Even after the fraud was exposed, the story survived because it revealed how eagerly Americans consumed discoveries that appeared to confirm cherished beliefs.[Wikipedia]WikipediaCardiff GiantCardiff Giant
The Calaveras Skull and the dream of an ancient America
If the Cardiff Giant appealed to religious curiosity, the Calaveras Skull appealed to scientific ambition. In 1866 a human skull reportedly emerged from gold-bearing deposits in California that were believed to be extremely ancient. If authentic, it would have pushed human presence in North America back by millions of years and overturned accepted ideas about prehistory.[Archaeology Magazine]archive.archaeology.orgMagazine Archaeology MagazineNonetheless, various groups have claimed it to be real over the past 150 years–and some still do. Along with…Read more…
The skull gained credibility because respected figures accepted it. Josiah Whitney, California’s state geologist, became one of its strongest defenders. The possibility of a revolutionary discovery encouraged many observers to overlook warning signs surrounding the skull’s provenance and appearance.[Archaeology Magazine]archive.archaeology.orgMagazine Archaeology MagazineNonetheless, various groups have claimed it to be real over the past 150 years–and some still do. Along with…Read more…
Critics eventually noted that the skull looked like that of a relatively recent Native American individual rather than an immensely ancient human. Subsequent investigation indicated that it had been planted as a practical joke. Smithsonian archaeologist William H. Holmes later became one of the most influential voices arguing that the object was fraudulent. Yet the episode lingered in popular culture because it offered an appealing alternative history in which human antiquity in America was far greater than mainstream science allowed.[Archaeology Magazine]archive.archaeology.orgMagazine Archaeology MagazineNonetheless, various groups have claimed it to be real over the past 150 years–and some still do. Along with…Read more…
The Calaveras Skull illustrates a recurring danger in archaeological controversies: when a find promises to rewrite history, the excitement generated by that possibility can overwhelm ordinary standards of evidence.
The Kensington Runestone and the search for early Europeans
Few disputed artefacts have generated as much long-term argument as the Kensington Runestone. Discovered in Minnesota in 1898, the stone carries an inscription that appears to describe a Scandinavian expedition deep within North America during the fourteenth century. If genuine, it would provide remarkable evidence of Norse exploration far beyond the areas traditionally associated with Viking activity.[mnhs.org]mnhs.orgKensington Runestone | MNopediaMay 15, 2020 — 15 May 2020 — Finally, who was responsible for the alleged hoax? If the inscription is a fake, it must have been done by s…
The runestone arrived at a moment when Scandinavian immigrants were helping shape the cultural identity of the Upper Midwest. A relic suggesting medieval Scandinavian exploration of the region held obvious appeal. Supporters argued that linguistic and historical details pointed to authenticity. Critics responded that the language and runic forms contained features inconsistent with a genuine medieval inscription.[mnhs.org]mnhs.orgKensington Runestone | MNopediaMay 15, 2020 — 15 May 2020 — Finally, who was responsible for the alleged hoax? If the inscription is a fake, it must have been done by s…
Unlike the Cardiff Giant, the Kensington Runestone has never been universally accepted as a settled fraud by the wider public. Most professional historians and linguists have regarded it as a modern creation, and early scholarly examinations judged it a forgery. Yet defenders continue to argue for authenticity, ensuring that the stone remains a live controversy rather than a closed case.[Wikipedia]WikipediaKensington RunestoneKensington Runestone
Its significance lies less in whether every debate has been resolved than in what the dispute reveals. The runestone became attractive because it appeared to provide a prestigious origin story for a region and an immigrant community. It demonstrates how relics can become symbols of identity as well as historical evidence.[mnhs.org]mnhs.orgKensington Runestone | MNopediaMay 15, 2020 — 15 May 2020 — Finally, who was responsible for the alleged hoax? If the inscription is a fake, it must have been done by s…
Drake’s Plate and the danger of institutional endorsement
The most instructive American relic forgery may be Drake’s Plate of Brass. Unlike the Cardiff Giant, it was not aimed primarily at the general public. Instead, it succeeded because it convinced scholars and institutions.
The plate surfaced in California during the 1930s and appeared to match historical descriptions of a brass marker supposedly left by Sir Francis Drake during his 1579 voyage along the Pacific coast. Historians had long searched for such an artefact. When the plate emerged, it seemed to fulfil a professional dream. Leading historians and institutions quickly embraced it as a major discovery.[Wikipedia]WikipediaDrake's Plate of BrassDrake's Plate of Brass
The object’s acceptance illustrates how expertise can sometimes reinforce rather than prevent error. Because the plate corresponded so closely to expectations, many supporters became convinced before exhaustive testing occurred. Early examinations appeared favourable, strengthening confidence in its authenticity. Public announcements followed, and the relic entered California’s historical narrative.[Wikipedia]WikipediaDrake's Plate of BrassDrake's Plate of Brass
Only decades later did increasingly sophisticated scientific analysis expose problems. Metallurgical and physical testing showed characteristics inconsistent with a sixteenth-century artefact and consistent with modern manufacture. Researchers eventually reconstructed the story of its creation, tracing it to members of the fraternal organisation E Clampus Vitus, who had originally intended it as a joke. The prank escaped its creators’ control and evolved into one of California’s most celebrated historical treasures before becoming one of its greatest historical embarrassments.[wikipedia.org]WikipediaDrake's Plate of BrassDrake's Plate of Brass
Drake’s Plate is especially important because it demonstrates that institutional prestige is not a guarantee of accuracy. Museums, libraries and scholars can all become vulnerable when an object appears to confirm a deeply desired conclusion.
What these relics reveal about American hoax history
The Cardiff Giant, Calaveras Skull, Kensington Runestone and Drake’s Plate differ in detail, but they share a common pattern. Each appeared to answer a question that people desperately wanted resolved.
Cardiff Giant(#endnote-3 “Endnote 3”) Giant seemed to support stories of ancient giants.[Wikipedia]WikipediaCardiff GiantCardiff Giant
- The Calaveras Skull promised proof of an extraordinarily ancient human presence in America.
- The Kensington Runestone suggested a dramatic Scandinavian chapter in North American history.
- Drake’s Plate appeared to confirm a famous episode of English exploration on the Pacific coast.[wikipedia.org]WikipediaCardiff GiantCardiff Giant
In every case, the artefact’s power came from its ability to transform speculation into apparent evidence. The object itself became an argument. Once displayed, photographed or endorsed by authorities, it acquired a momentum that ordinary criticism struggled to stop.
These forged relics therefore occupy a distinctive place in the history of American deception. They were not simply lies told in words. They were manufactured pieces of the past, designed to fill gaps in history with tangible proof. Their eventual exposure did more than correct the record. It helped establish modern expectations about provenance, scientific testing and archaeological scrutiny, reminding historians that the most persuasive evidence is often the evidence that deserves the closest examination.[wikipedia.org]WikipediaDrake's Plate of BrassDrake's Plate of Brass
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Endnotes
1.
Source: Wikipedia
Title: Drake’s Plate of Brass
Link:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake%27s_Plate_of_Brass
2.
Source: archive.archaeology.org
Title: Magazine Archaeology Magazine
Link:https://archive.archaeology.org/online/features/hoaxes/calaveras.html
Source snippet
Nonetheless, various groups have claimed it to be real over the past 150 years--and some still do. Along with...Read more...
3.
Source: Wikipedia
Title: Cardiff Giant
Link:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiff_Giant
4.
Source: Wikipedia
Title: Out-of-place artifact
Link:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-of-place_artifact
5.
Source: mnhs.org
Title: Kensington Runestone | MNopedia
Link:https://www.mnhs.org/mnopedia/search/index/thing/kensington-runestone
Source snippet
May 15, 2020 — 15 May 2020 — Finally, who was responsible for the alleged hoax? If the inscription is a fake, it must have been done by s...
Published: May 15, 2020
6.
Source: Wikipedia
Title: Kensington Runestone
Link:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensington_Runestone
7.
Source: scandinavianarchaeology.com
Link:https://www.scandinavianarchaeology.com/the-kensington-runestone-great-hoaxes-in-scandinavian-archaeology/
Source snippet
The Kensington Runestone: great hoaxes in Scandinavian...1 Apr 2023 — The Kensington Runestone: great hoaxes in Scandinavian archaeology...
8.
Source: pubs.acs.org
Title: Publications Tests of Drake’s brass plate indicate fake
Link:https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/cen-v055n032.p006a
9.
Source: smithsonianmag.com
Title: Smithsonian Magazine The Cardiff Giant Was Just a Big Hoax
Link:https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/cardiff-giant-was-just-big-hoax-180965274/
Source snippet
Smithsonian MagazineThe Cardiff Giant Was Just a Big HoaxOctober 16, 2017 — 16 Oct 2017 — The story, which began on this day in 1869, was...
Published: October 16, 2017
10.
Source: kids.kiddle.co
Title: Drake’s Plate of Brass
Link:https://kids.kiddle.co/Drake%27s_Plate_of_Brass
11.
Source: publicdomainreview.org
Title: cardiff giant
Link:https://publicdomainreview.org/collection/cardiff-giant/
Additional References
12.
Source: historysnob.com
Title: 20 archaeological hoaxes that fooled people for way too long
Link:https://www.historysnob.com/eras/20-archaeological-hoaxes-that-fooled-people-for-way-too-long
Source snippet
The Calaveras Skull In 1866, a human skull from Calaveras County, California, was promoted as evidence. Drake's Plate...
13.
Source: youtube.com
Title: America’s Biggest Archaeological Hoax (And Nobody Noticed for 30 Years)
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=As6cMTKj6sQ
Source snippet
The Calaveras Skull The Mysterious Artifact That Challenged Human History...
14.
Source: youtube.com
Title: The Giants Buried Beneath North America
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UX5e7vr3V9c
Source snippet
"Episode 130: Did Giants Exist? George Hull and the Cardiff Giant[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iin6QpYvkW4..."](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iin6QpYvkW4...")...
15.
Source: facebook.com
Link:https://www.facebook.com/groups/quirkymn/posts/1801007780289692/
16.
Source: atlasobscura.com
Link:https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/cardiff-giant
17.
Source: reddit.com
Link:https://www.reddit.com/r/runes/comments/agt749/the_kensington_mn_runestone_object_of_scrutiny_on/
18.
Source: youtube.com
Title: The Calaveras Skull The Mysterious Artifact That Challenged Human History
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a2j1mM7-rmY
Source snippet
The Giants Buried Beneath North America...
19.
Source: hekint.org
Title: the cardiff giant archaeologys biggest hoax
Link:https://hekint.org/2025/06/05/the-cardiff-giant-archaeologys-biggest-hoax/
20.
Source: goldfieldsbooks.com
Title: Sir Francis Drake’s Plate of Brass
Link:https://goldfieldsbooks.com/2022/04/06/sir-francis-drakes-plate-of-brass/
21.
Source: sleuthsayers.org
Title: drakes plate happy april fools day
Link:https://www.sleuthsayers.org/2021/04/drakes-plate-happy-april-fools-day.html
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